During the period leading up to British colonial rule in India, the landscape of the Indian subcontinent was marked by the rise of various regional states. These states, often characterized by their distinct cultures, languages, and governance systems, played a significant role in shaping the political, social, and economic landscape of the Indian subcontinent. As the Mughal Empire weakened, numerous regional powers emerged, asserting their autonomy and influence over their respective territories. These regional states not only engaged in diplomatic relations and conflicts among themselves but also interacted with external powers, including European traders and colonial powers. Understanding the dynamics of these regional states provides valuable insights into the complexities of pre-colonial Indian politics and the context in which British colonialism eventually took root.
- During the 18th century, the once-unified Mughal Empire began to splinter into various autonomous regional states. These emerging states fall into three main categories: old Mughal provinces, watan jagirs, and territories controlled by entities like the Marathas and Sikhs.
- The old Mughal provinces, including Awadh, Bengal, and Hyderabad, retained significant power and autonomy, though they maintained nominal allegiance to the Mughal emperor.
- Watan jagirs, which were Rajput principalities, had enjoyed substantial independence under Mughal rule and sought to expand their influence by governing additional territories.
- Lastly, states controlled by groups like the Marathas and Sikhs gained independence from the Mughals through prolonged armed conflicts.
Hyderabad
Hyderabad’s creator, Nizam-ul-Mulk Asaf Jah, was chosen by the Mughal Emperor Farrukh Siyar. Initially, he governed Awadh and later took charge of the Deccan. He ruled independently without any interference from Delhi. Hyderabad often clashed with the Marathas in the west and with independent Telugu military leaders called nayakas.
Awadh
In 1722, Sa’adat Khan was made the leader of Awadh. Awadh was a prosperous area that controlled the fertile Ganga plain and the main trade route between north India and Bengal. Burhan-ul-Mulk held the positions of subadar, diwani, and faujdari. He tried to weaken Mughal authority in Awadh by reducing the number of Mughal-appointed officials (jagirdars).
Local bankers and Mahajan provided loans. The right to collect taxes was sold to the highest bidder. These tax collectors agreed to pay a fixed amount to the government and had significant freedom in assessing and collecting taxes. These changes allowed new social groups like moneylenders and bankers to influence the state’s tax system, which hadn’t happened before.
Bengal
Bengal gradually distanced itself from Mughal control under Murshid Quli Khan, who acted as the deputy to the governor of the province, even though he wasn’t officially appointed as such. He managed the state’s finances, similar to the rulers of Hyderabad and Awadh.
He relocated all Mughal-appointed officials to Orissa and carefully examined Bengal’s income to reduce Mughal influence. Taxes were vigorously collected from all landowners in cash. This shows that the wealthiest merchants and bankers in Hyderabad, Awadh, and Bengal were gaining influence in the changing political landscape.
The Rajput
During the 18th century, many Rajput rulers, especially those from places like Amber and Jodhpur, were given a lot of freedom to govern their own territories known as watan jagirs. These kings tried to increase their power by taking over nearby regions. For instance, Raja Ajit Singh of Jodhpur ruled Gujarat, and Sawai Raja Jai Singh of Amber governed Malwa. They also tried to expand their territories by capturing areas next to their own lands.
The Sikhs
In the 17th century, the Sikhs came together as a political group in Punjab, which helped in building regional states. Guru Gobind Singh fought against Rajput and Mughal rulers, and after his death, the battle continued under Banda Bahadur. They held collective decision-making gatherings called “resolutions of the Guru” in Amritsar during Baisakhi and Diwali. They established the Rakhi system, offering protection to farmers in exchange for a 20% tax on their produce.
Their strong organization enabled them to resist Mughal rulers and later Ahmad Shah Abdali, who took control of Punjab from the Mughals. In 1765, the Khalsa declared their independence by minting their own coins, continuing the tradition from Banda Bahadur’s time. Maharaja Ranjit Singh unified the Sikh factions in 1799 and made Lahore his capital.
The Marathas
Shivaji, who lived from 1627 to 1680, established a strong kingdom by resisting Mughal rule with the help of powerful warrior families called Deshmukhs. The Maratha army was supported by mobile peasant-pastoralist groups known as kunbis. The capital of the Maratha kingdom was Poona.
After Shivaji, his chief ministers known as Peshwas built a powerful military by attacking cities and facing Mughal forces in areas where their supply lines could be easily cut off. By the 1730s, the Maratha king had control over the entire Deccan peninsula. He imposed taxes like Chauth (a quarter of the land revenue) and sardeshmukhi (a percentage of land revenue) across the region.
Even though the Marathas invaded Delhi in 1737 and expanded their borders, these territories weren’t technically part of the Maratha empire but had to pay tribute to acknowledge Maratha authority. Because of these military actions, other rulers became hostile towards the Marathas and didn’t support them in the third battle of Panipat in 1761. Despite this, cities like Malwa and Ujjain were prosperous and served as important commercial and cultural hubs, showing the Marathas’ effective administrative skills.
The Jats
In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, the Jats became influential. Under their leader Churaman, they took control of lands to the west of Delhi. By the 1680s, they were the dominant power in the region between Delhi and Agra. The Jats were prosperous farmers, and towns like Panipat and Ballabhgarh became important trading centers under their rule. When Nadir Shah of Iran attacked Delhi in 1739, many important people from the city sought refuge with the Jats. Jawahir Shah, a Jat leader, assembled troops with the help of Marathas and Sikhs to oppose the Mughals.
Mysore
The Wadiyars, also known as Wodeyars, ruled Mysore, benefiting from conflicts between the Mughal Empire and the Marathas in the 17th century. Mysore, situated between the Eastern and Western Ghats, became a sought-after region for various powers, leading to ongoing struggles. Eventually, Haider Ali took control of Mysore, capturing key cities like Seringapatam and Bangalore. Despite initial successes, the Wodeyars faced challenges due to internal issues and Hyder Ali’s rise to power in 1761. Hyder Ali expanded Mysore’s territory but faced resistance, leading to conflicts with the British and the eventual conquest of Mysore.
Mysore emerged as an autonomous state after the fall of the Vijayanagar Empire. It modernized its army with French assistance, introducing European military techniques. Haider and Tipu Sultan imposed cash taxes on peasants, strengthening the state’s finances and military power. However, territorial ambitions and conflicts with other regional powers and the British ensued. Despite victories against the English, Tipu Sultan’s reign ended with defeat in 1799.
Haider Ali, born in 1721, rose from humble beginnings to become a skilled military leader. He collaborated with the French, conquered territories, and modernized Mysore’s army. Tipu Sultan, his son, continued his father’s legacy, emphasizing military development and technological progress. He supported science, technology, and democracy but ultimately perished defending Srirangapatna against the English in 1799.
In summary, Mysore’s history has been marked by the dominance of the Wodeyars and continuous conflicts among different groups with vested interests in the region. Haider Ali and his son, Tipu Sultan, faced numerous challenges as they sought to maintain control over Mysore and resist British influence. Their struggles highlight the enduring theme of conflict and power struggles that have characterized the history of Mysore.
Also read about Fall of Mughals on eve of British Rule.