The Anglo-Maratha Struggle refers to a series of conflicts and diplomatic maneuvers between the British East India Company and the Maratha Empire during the 18th and early 19th centuries in India. This period was marked by intense political and military rivalry as both powers vied for dominance and control over vast territories in the Indian subcontinent. The struggle encompassed battles, treaties, and shifting alliances, shaping the course of Indian history and ultimately contributing to the decline of Maratha power and the expansion of British influence in India.
In the 18th century, India saw a fierce struggle between the Marathas, a powerful indigenous force, and the British East India Company. The Marathas controlled large territories and held significant influence, even receiving tributes from regions beyond their direct rule. However, their defeat at the Third Battle of Panipat in 1761 weakened their position. Despite this setback, they regrouped and regained strength, eventually establishing themselves as a dominant force in India.
Rise of Marathas
Bajirao I, considered the greatest of the Peshwas, played a crucial role in organizing a confederacy of prominent Maratha chiefs to manage their expanding power. This confederacy aimed to conquer and rule different regions under the Maratha king’s name, Shahu. Key families emerged within this confederacy, including the Gaekwad of Baroda, Bhonsle of Nagpur, Holkars of Indore, Sindhias of Gwalior, and the Peshwa of Poona. However, the defeat at Panipat and the death of Peshwa Madhavrao I weakened the Peshwas’ control over the confederacy, leading to increased infighting among its members.
Meanwhile, the British East India Company saw an opportunity to expand its influence in India amidst the Marathas’ internal conflicts. The English in Bombay aimed to establish their own government similar to the one established by Clive in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. The divided state of the Marathas encouraged the English to pursue their ambitions. As a result, clashes between the Marathas and the English occurred, ultimately leading to three significant conflicts for political supremacy, with the English eventually emerging victorious.
British in Maratha Politics
- During the late 1700s and early 1800s, the Marathas and the English had three big conflicts to become the top power, and the English won in the end. These conflicts happened because the English had big goals, and the Marathas were divided internally, which made it easier for the English to pursue their goals.
- In Bombay, the English wanted to set up a government like the one Robert Clive made in Bengal, Bihar, and Orissa. When there were fights over who would be the leader among the Marathas, it gave the English a chance to get involved in Maratha politics.
- The English saw this as an opportunity to get what they wanted. They wanted to use the Marathas’ problems to control lands and resources. They hoped to control the Maratha leaders or make them do what they wanted for their own benefit.
- These conflicts between the Marathas and the English involved lots of battles, alliances, and talks. The English made use of the Marathas’ fights among themselves, making friends with some groups and using those fights to weaken the Marathas.
- In the end, with wins in battles, clever talk, and using the Marathas’ problems, the English became the strongest power in the area. These conflicts changed India’s politics a lot, with the English getting more control over big areas.
First Anglo-Maratha War (1775-82)
The First Anglo-Maratha War was a crucial event that shaped the future relations between the Marathas and the British in India.
Background:
After the death of Madhavrao in 1772, his brother Narayanrao became the fifth Peshwa. But Narayanrao was assassinated by his uncle Raghunathrao, who declared himself the new Peshwa. However, Narayanrao’s widow, Gangabai, gave birth to a son named ‘Sawai’ Madhavrao, who was the rightful heir to the position.
Treaties of Surat and Purandar:
Raghunathrao sought help from the English and signed the Treaty of Surat in 1775, ceding territories to them. The British Council sent Colonel Upton to Pune to annul this treaty and make a new one, the Treaty of Purandar in 1776. However, the Bombay government rejected it.
Condemnation of the treaty:
The British Council condemned the Treaty of Surat and sent Colonel Upton to Pune to make a new treaty. The Bombay government rejected it and gave refuge to Raghunathrao. In 1777, Nana Phadnavis violated a treaty with the Calcutta Council by granting the French a port on the west coast, leading to tensions.
The course of the war:
The Maratha and English armies clashed on the outskirts of Pune. Despite having more soldiers, the Marathas suffered due to English superior ammunition and cannons. General Mahadji Sindhia led the Maratha army brilliantly, trapping the English in mountain passes and attacking their supplies. The English surrendered in 1779, signing the Treaty of Wadgaon.
Treaty of Salbai (1782):
The English, led by Warren Hastings, rejected the Treaty of Wadgaon and sent more troops. They captured key territories and defeated Sindhia at Sipri. The Treaty of Salbai was signed in 1782, restoring territories to the Marathas and outlining terms for trade and support for Raghunathrao.
Overall, these events marked a significant chapter in the history of Anglo-Maratha relations, setting the tone for future interactions and conflicts.
The Second Anglo-Maratha War (1803-05)
The Second Anglo-Maratha War was a significant event in the relations between the Marathas and the British.
Background:
After Peshwa Madhavrao Narayan’s death in 1795, his son Bajirao II became the Peshwa. Nana Phadnavis, a rival of Bajirao II, became the chief minister. Disagreements among the Marathas gave the British a chance to interfere in Maratha affairs, and Nana Phadnavis’ death in 1800 further weakened the Marathas.
Course of the war:
In April 1801, the Peshwa murdered Jaswantrao Holkar’s brother, leading to conflict between Holkar and the combined armies of the Peshwa and Sindhia. Holkar decisively defeated them at Hadapsar in October 1802 and placed Vinayakrao, son of Amritrao, as the Peshwa. Bajirao II fled to Bassein and signed the Treaty of Bassein with the English on December 31, 1802.
Treaty of Bassein (1802):
Under the treaty, the Peshwa agreed to receive a contingent of English troops stationed permanently in his territories, cede territories yielding an income to the Company, surrender Surat, and more. This treaty significantly enhanced the British presence and influence in Maratha territories.
Reduced to Vassalage:
The acceptance of the subsidiary alliance by the Peshwa led to attempts by Sindhia and Bhonsle to resist British dominance. However, they were defeated by the well-organized English army under Arthur Wellesley. Jaswant Rao Holkar’s attempt to form a coalition against the English also failed.
Significance of the Treaty of Bassein:
While the treaty was signed by a Peshwa lacking political authority, it greatly benefited the English. The provision of permanently stationing English troops in Maratha territories strategically strengthened their position. This treaty paved the way for the British to expand their influence in India, although it did not immediately hand over control to them.
The Third Anglo-Maratha War (1817-19)
Background:
Lord Hastings aimed to establish British paramountcy in India, spurred by the East India Company’s need for more markets after losing its monopoly on trade in China. The Pindaris, once mercenaries attached to Maratha armies, turned to plundering neighboring territories when the Marathas weakened. The British accused the Marathas of sheltering the Pindaris, leading to tensions. The Treaty of Bassein, seen as an agreement with a powerless Peshwa, angered other Maratha leaders, further straining relations.
Course of the war:
In 1817, a repentant Bajirao II rallied Maratha chiefs against the English in the Third Anglo-Maratha War. The Peshwa attacked the British Residency at Poona, while other Maratha leaders prepared for war. However, the Marathas had lost much of their power, and their political and administrative conditions were chaotic. The British, striking back vigorously, prevented the Peshwa from reasserting control over the Maratha confederacy.
Result:
The British defeated the Peshwa, Bhonsle, and Holkar in various battles. Important treaties were signed, including the Treaty of Poona with the Peshwa, Treaty of Gwalior with Sindhia, and Treaty of Mandasor with Holkar. In June 1818, the Peshwa surrendered, leading to the dissolution of the Maratha Confederacy. The Peshwa’s position was abolished, and he became a British retainer. Pratap Singh, a descendant of Shivaji, was made ruler of Satara, a new principality formed from the Peshwa’s dominions.
Why Maratha lost despite being greatest power of that time?
- Weak Leadership: Later Maratha leaders like Bajirao II, Daulatrao Sindhia, and Jaswantrao Holkar lacked effective leadership skills compared to English officials such as Elphinstone and Arthur Wellesley.
- Defective State Structure: The Maratha state lacked cohesion and failed to improve communal conditions or unify its people, relying instead on religious-nationalistic movements.
- Loose Political Setup: The Maratha empire operated as a loose confederation with semi-independent chiefs like Gaikwad, Holkar, Sindhia, and Bhonsle, weakening overall state authority.
- Inferior Military System: Marathas lacked organization, weaponry, and disciplined action compared to the English. Internal divisions and treachery further weakened their military strength.
- Unstable Economic Policy: Marathas failed to develop a stable economic policy, hindering economic development and political stability.
- Superior English Diplomacy: English demonstrated superior diplomatic skills, exploiting Maratha disunity and maintaining a strong spy system.
- Progressive English Outlook: English had a progressive outlook, while Marathas remained traditional, hindering practical governance. Overall, weak leadership, defective political structure, military weaknesses, economic instability, diplomatic disadvantages, and cultural differences contributed to Maratha defeat by the English.
- Regarding Sindh conquest: English gradually gained interest due to trade facilities authorized by a Mughal Farman in 1630. Rise of Talpuras Amirs in the 18th century led to English efforts to establish influence. Treaties like the 1807 ‘Eternal Friendship’ and the 1832 treaty confirmed English privileges and established a defensive arrangement. Lord Auckland’s interest aimed to counter potential Russian invasion and gain influence in Afghanistan, gradually turning Sindh into a British protectorate through treaties and interventions.
In conclusion, the Anglo-Maratha conflicts of the 18th and 19th centuries marked a significant chapter in Indian history, ultimately resulting in the decline of Maratha power and the ascendance of British dominance. The defeat of the Marathas can be attributed to a combination of factors, including weak leadership, defective political structures, military shortcomings, economic instability, diplomatic disadvantages, and cultural differences. These conflicts reshaped the political landscape of India, paving the way for British colonial rule. Additionally, the English gradually expanded their influence into regions like Sindh, utilizing diplomatic maneuvers and treaties to establish control. The Anglo-Maratha wars serve as a poignant reminder of the complexities and consequences of colonialism, leaving a lasting impact on the trajectory of Indian history.
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