The Indus Valley Civilization offers valuable insights into the origins of urban life, early state formation, and cultural developments in ancient India. Its advanced urban planning, sophisticated craftsmanship, and extensive trade networks challenge conventional narratives about ancient societies and highlight the rich cultural heritage of the Indian subcontinent.
The Indus Valley Civilization was the earliest big civilization in South Asia, covering a large area in modern-day India and Pakistan (around 1.2 million square kilometers).
The mature phase of the Indus Valley Civilization is thought to have lasted from around 2700 BCE to 1900 BCE, which is about 800 years. However, there were early settlements of the civilization even before 2700 BCE.
Facts about Indus Valley Civilization
- Between approximately 2700 BCE and 1900 BCE, a period spanning about 800 years, the Indus Valley Civilization thrived in the valleys of the Indus River. This civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization, marking the beginning of urban life in South Asia.
- The discovery of Harappan sites is credited to Dayaram Sahni in 1921, who unearthed remains in the Montgomery district of Punjab, Pakistan. Mohenjo-Daro, another major city of the civilization, was discovered by R. D. Banerji in the Larkana district of Sindh, Pakistan.
- Cities of the Indus Valley Civilization were structured with a Citadel in the west and a Lower Town in the east. They had distinct red pottery adorned with black designs, and artifacts such as stone weights, seals, special beads, copper tools, and long stone blades have been found at these sites.
- Metals like copper, bronze, silver, and gold were present, and a material known as faience, artificially produced ceramic material, was also used. The civilization had specialists in various handicrafts and relied on imported raw materials.
- Agriculture was crucial, with the use of ploughs for cultivation. Burials evolved from wooden coffins to a later stage known as the ‘H symmetry culture’, where bodies were buried in painted burial urns.
- Interestingly, sugar cane was not cultivated, and neither were horses nor iron used during this period in the Indus Valley Civilization.
Features of Indus Valley Civilization
Urban Planning and Structures
- Indus Valley towns were laid out in a rectangular grid pattern with streets running at right angles to each other.
- Buildings were constructed using burnt mud bricks held together with gypsum mortar, similar to the dried bricks used in ancient Egypt.
- Cities were divided into two parts: the Upper Citadel, raised on a platform, and the Lower Town, where the working class lived.
- Most buildings had private wells and well-ventilated bathrooms.
- Unlike in Egyptian or Mesopotamian civilizations, there were no large monumental structures like temples or palaces.
Agriculture
- The main crops grown were two types of wheat and barley, with evidence of rice cultivation in Lothal and Rangpur (Gujarat).
- The Harappans were the first to produce cotton, leading the Greeks to call them “Sindon.”
- They used animal-drawn wooden ploughs and stone sickles for farming.
- Though dams enclosed gabarbands or nalas, canal irrigation was likely not practiced extensively.
Domestication of Animals
- Domesticated animals included oxen, buffaloes, goats, sheep, pigs, dogs, cats, asses, and camels.
- The Harappans favored humped bulls, and evidence of horses was found in Surkotada, Mohenjo-Daro, and Lothal.
- Lions were not known, but elephants and rhinoceroses were.
Technology and Crafts
- The Indus Valley Civilization marked the first urbanization in India.
- While bronze was occasionally used, tin and copper were scarce, so bronze tools were not widespread.
- Iron was not yet known.
- Important crafts included spinning, bricklaying, boat-making, seal-making, terracotta manufacturing, goldsmithing, and bead making.
- They were aware of the wheel’s use.
Trade and Commerce
- Trade was supported by granaries, seals, a uniform script, and standardized weights and measures.
- They engaged in inter-regional and foreign trade, with Sumerian texts referencing trade with Meluha (Indus region) via intermediate trading stations.
- Boats and bullock-carts were used for transportation, and exchanges were conducted through bartering.
- Imports included gold, silver, copper, tin, jade, and steatite, while exports included agricultural products, cotton goods, terracotta figurines, beads, conch shells, ivory products, and copper.
Social Organization
- There was a hierarchy in urban habitation, with merchants and priests being important classes.
- The Harappans were fashion-conscious, with different hairstyles and beard styles being popular.
- Both men and women wore jewelry, but certain items like bangles, girdles, anklets, and earrings were worn only by women.
- Beads were made from various materials, including gold, copper, bronze, cornelian, quartz, and steatite, often featuring naturalistic animal designs.
- Pastimes included fishing, hunting, and bullfighting.
Polity
- A central authority may have contributed to a uniform culture, although there’s no clear evidence of an organized force or standing army.
- Priests did not rule as in lower Mesopotamia but were possibly ruled by a merchant class.
Religious Practices
- The male deity Pashupati Mahadeva (proto-Siva) was depicted with three-horned heads and surrounded by various animals.
- Phallus (lingam) and Yoni worship was prevalent, and the Rig Veda mentions non-Aryan people who were phallus worshippers.
- The chief female deity was the mother goddess, and fire was also worshipped.
- Trees and animals were also objects of worship.
- Amulets were used against ghosts and evil forces.
Script
- The Indus script is the oldest in the Indian subcontinent and is pictographic (yet to be deciphered).
- Writing was done boustrophedon, alternating between right-to-left and left-to-right writing.
Pottery
- Plain pottery was more common than painted ware and was generally red clay, sturdy, and well-baked.
- Painted pottery, known as Red and Black Pottery, featured red backgrounds with glossy black designs of trees, birds, animals, and geometrical patterns.
- Most pottery was wheel-made, with some rare polychrome pottery found.
Seals and Sealings
- Most seals were square plaques made mostly of steatite, featuring animal or human figures and inscriptions.
- They were used for commercial, identification, and educational purposes.
- Some seals had symbols resembling the Swastika.
Art
- Bronze casting was practiced widely using the ‘lost wax’ technique, with human and animal figures being common.
- Stone statues include a bearded man (interpreted as a priest) made of steatite and a male torso made of red sandstone.
- Terracotta figures were less common but included representations of the mother goddess, horned deity masks, and toys.
Decline
- After 2000 BCE, the Indus Valley Civilization declined and eventually faded away.
- Possible reasons include declining soil fertility, environmental changes, Aryan invasion, decline of trade, floods, and earthquakes, with ecological imbalance being the most accepted theory.
Major Sites of Indus Valley Civilization
| Major Site | Discovery | Notable Discoveries |
|---|---|---|
| Harappa | Discovered along the Ravi River. | Granaries, red sandstone male torso, stone symbols of Lingam and Yoni, painted pottery, Mother Goddess, dice. |
| Mohenjodaro | Discovered by R.D. Banerjee in 1922. | Largest site of the Indus civilization, post-cremation burials, Great Granary, Great Bath (largest building), Pashupati seal, bronze dancing girl. |
| Chanhudaro | Discovered by N.G. Mazumdar in 1931. | Inkpot, lipstick, metalworkers, shell-ornament makers, and bead makers shop, dog’s paw imprint on brick, terracotta model of bullock cart, bronze toy cart. |
| Lothal | Discovered by S. Rao in 1953. | Important naval trade site, cremation site, dockyard, granaries, rice husk, double burial (male and female together). |
| Dholavira | Discovered by R. Bisht in 1985. | Unique water harnessing system and stormwater drainage system, site divided into three parts, megalithic stone circle. |
| Surkotada | Discovered by S. Joshi in 1964. | Only site with horse remains, oval grave, pot burials, soldiers’ sign on potsherd. |
| Kalibangan | Discovered by A. Ghosh. | Bangle factory, ploughed field surface, camel bones, fire altars. |
In conclusion, the Indus Valley Civilization stands as a testament to the ingenuity and sophistication of ancient Indian society. Spanning approximately from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE, this remarkable civilization flourished in the valleys of the Indus River, encompassing present-day Pakistan and northwest India.
Through meticulous urban planning, advanced technology, and a vibrant trade network, the Harappan people created thriving cities with impressive infrastructure and cultural achievements. They developed a system of standardized weights and measures, a uniform script (yet to be fully deciphered), and sophisticated drainage systems, all of which point to a highly organized society.
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