As India traversed the tumultuous path towards independence from British colonial rule, one of the pivotal phases in its journey was the period of Congress rule in various provinces. Marked by a delicate balance between nationalist aspirations and administrative pragmatism, this era holds significant relevance in understanding the complexities of governance during the freedom struggle.
Following the Government of India Act, 1935, provincial elections were held, paving the way for the formation of Congress-led ministries in several provinces. This transition from opposition to governance posed a unique set of challenges and opportunities for the nationalist movement, as it grappled with the dual objectives of advancing self-rule while navigating the constraints of colonial governance structures.
Background
The Election of 1937 was a big moment in the history of many provinces in British India because it led to the formation of Congress-led governments. Happening during a time when politics was changing quickly, this election was really important for India’s fight for independence. The Indian National Congress became a major political force, getting a lot of support and winning many seats in the elections. This meant that Congress leaders got to run several provincial governments, which was a big step toward self-rule. This time marked a big change in how power was shifting from the British rulers to the nationalist movements, setting the stage for India’s eventual quest for independence.
Congress’s Goals in the 1937 Election:
General Aim:
Congress wanted to send its members to the legislatures not to work with the government but to fight against the Government of India Act, 1935.
Political Goals:
They promised to fight for civil liberties, release political prisoners, and correct injustices against peasants.
Economic Goals:
They aimed to ensure fair wages, decent working conditions, and the right to form unions. They also wanted ways to settle disputes between workers and employers fairly.
Social Goals:
Congress pledged to end untouchability, promote gender equality, and support village industries like khadi.
1937 Election Results:
Congress did well in the elections, winning most seats in six provinces and becoming the biggest party in others.
Decision on Office Acceptance:
Congress leaders met in March 1937 to decide whether to join the government. They decided to accept only if the governors didn’t interfere with their work. Some Congress members and socialist leaders disagreed with this decision, thinking it was backing down from their fight against British rule. But many Indian capitalists supported the decision.
Faizpur Session of Congress, 1937:
This session, led by Jawaharlal Nehru, was held in a village. Congress officially demanded a Constituent Assembly and laid out plans to help farmers, like reducing rents and taxes and supporting peasant unions.
Establishment of Congress Ministries:
- In 1937, Congress Ministries were set up in 8 out of the 11 provinces of India. To guide and coordinate their efforts and prevent British attempts to control Congress provincially, a central control board called the Parliamentary Sub-Committee was formed. It included members like Sardar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, and Rajendra Prasad.
- With these ministries, Congress now served as both the provincial government and the opposition to the Central Government, which had more power. Congress aimed to balance these roles and responsibilities.
- As Gandhi wrote in Harijan on August 7, 1937, taking office wasn’t about holding onto power tightly but rather lightly. He compared these offices to crowns of thorns instead of symbols of fame. The goal of accepting office was to see if they could speed up progress toward their goal.
Congress in Madras Presidency:
- In the Madras Presidency, the Government of India Act of 1935 set up a two-part legislature with a Governor overseeing it all. The Justice Party had been in charge since 1920, but it started losing popularity in the early 1930s due to inner fighting, dictatorial leadership, and unpopular economic moves during the Great Depression. People didn’t like how the Justice Party worked with the British government and refused to lower taxes for some landowners.
- The Congress party took advantage of this dissatisfaction. They used the Civil Disobedience movement, protests against tax changes, and organizing workers to gather support against the Justice Party led by the Raja of Bobbili. Congress won over farmers by fighting for fair taxes and weavers by promoting Gandhi’s spinning program. Local businesses also joined Congress because they felt European traders were treated better.
- During the elections, Congress won big, getting 74% of all seats, while the Justice Party only got 21. At first, Congress was unsure about taking power because of the Governor’s special powers under the 1935 Act. But leaders like S. Satyamurti pushed Congress to accept power while staying within the Act’s rules. They also asked the British government to promise not to misuse the Governor’s powers.
- In June, Viceroy Linlithgow said the British government wanted to work with Congress under the 1935 Act. So, on July 1, the Congress Working Committee agreed to run the provinces they won. On July 14, Rajaji became the Chief Minister.
- The 1937 elections marked the start of Congress being part of running India. It also boosted Rajaji’s role within Congress.
Congress in Sindh Presidency:
In Sindh, the elections held in 1936 were the first since the province was created. There were 60 members in the Sind Legislative Assembly. The Sind United Party got the most seats, with 22. In the general areas, the Sind Hindu Mahasabha won eleven seats, and the Congress Party got eight. Even though most people in Sindh were Muslim, Mohammad Ali Jinnah tried to set up a League Parliamentary Board in 1936, but it didn’t work, and the Muslim League didn’t win any of the 34 seats reserved for Muslims.
Congress in United Provinces:
In the United Provinces, the government had two parts: a Legislative Council with 52 elected and 6 or 8 appointed members, and a Legislative Assembly with 228 elected members. The Assembly had seats for Muslims, general voters, and special groups. The Congress party won most of the seats, with 133, giving them a strong majority. The Muslim League only got 27 out of the 64 seats reserved for Muslims.
Congress in Assam
In Assam, the Congress party got the most seats, winning 33 out of 108. But they didn’t have enough seats to make their own government. So, the Governor asked Sir Muhammad Sadulla from the Assam Valley Muslim Party, who had won 26 seats, to form the government. The Congress joined his government as part of a coalition.
Congress in Bombay
The Government of India Act 1935 created a two-part legislature in Bombay province. Ambedkar’s Independent Labour Party did really well in Bombay, winning eleven out of fifteen reserved seats. Although the Congress party didn’t quite get enough seats to rule alone, they managed to get support from smaller groups that liked them, giving them a working majority. B.G. Kher became the first Chief Minister of Bombay. The Ambedkarites also did well in the Central Provinces and Berar.
Congress in Bengal
In Bengal, the Congress party got the most seats, with 52. But the Krishak Praja Party (KPP) led by A.K. Fazlul Huq, with 36 seats, formed a government with support from other parties. At first, Huq and his KPP posed a big challenge to the Muslim League in the 1937 elections. But soon after, they joined hands with the Muslim League to run the government. Huq’s popularity dropped as he started supporting landlords and rich farmers, going against the promises he made during the elections to help poor farmers. In 1937, Huq joined the Muslim League and was given the honor of introducing the Lahore Resolution in 1940.
Congress in Punjab
In Punjab, the Unionist Party led by Sikander Hayat Khan won 67 out of 175 seats. The Congress got 18 seats, and the Akali Dal got 10. After the 1937 elections, the Unionists joined with others to form a government in Punjab, and Sir Sikander Hyat Khan became the premier. Later on, Sikander made a deal with Jinnah through the Jinnah-Sikander Pact of 1937. Even though there were problems in their partnership, this made the Unionists more accepted among Punjabi Muslims, and Jinnah got a chance to make the Muslim League more important in South Asian Muslim politics.
Work of Congress
Promoting Civil Liberties:
Congress Ministries worked to enhance civil liberties in their provinces by repealing emergency powers granted through Public Safety Acts. They lifted bans on illegal political groups and eased restrictions on political literature. While the ban on the Communist Party remained, they allowed them more freedom. Press restrictions were removed, confiscated arms returned, and police powers curbed to create a freer environment.
Release of Political Prisoners:
The Ministries prioritized releasing political prisoners, including revolutionaries. In Uttar Pradesh and Bihar, prisoners from the Cellular Jail in the Andaman Islands were brought back after a hunger strike. Even though governors initially refused, negotiations led to their release by March.
Challenges and Criticisms:
While Congress-ruled provinces improved civil liberties, places like Bengal had restrictions. In Bombay, lands confiscated during the Civil Disobedience Movement were restored. However, there were criticisms, like in Madras, where socialist leaders were prosecuted, raising concerns about right-wing Congress members’ actions.
Agrarian Reforms:
Congress aimed to help peasants through agrarian reforms, like tenancy rights and reducing rural debts. But constitutional limits, financial constraints, and time pressures limited their scope. Negotiating with landlord classes and dealing with reactionary Legislative councils posed challenges.
Regulation of Moneylenders:
Congress Governments, except in Uttar Pradesh and Assam, introduced debtors’ relief acts to help debtors by cancelling or reducing interest. These acts faced opposition from moneylenders and lawyers reliant on debt litigation.
Rural Reconstruction:
Congress Governments in Bombay liberated tied serfs and reduced grazing fees in forests. Though tenancy bills faced resistance from landlords, efforts were made to provide relief to debtors.
Support for Workers:
Congress Ministries aimed to improve workers’ conditions, reduce strikes, and establish conciliation machinery. This alarmed Indian capitalists, leading to measures like the Industrial Disputes Act in Bombay, which faced criticism for limiting strike freedom.
Social Measures:
Prohibition was introduced in some areas, and efforts were made to uplift untouchables/Harijans by granting them access to various facilities. Education expansion, particularly for girls and Harijans, was emphasized, along with mass adult literacy campaigns. Economic development measures included support for khadi, spinning, village industries, and prison reforms.
National Planning:
Congress Governments participated in national planning efforts through the National Planning Committee, led by Subhas Chandra Bose, aiming for overall economic development.
Issues Surfaced
- During Congress rule, there were internal conflicts and disagreements, both based on ideology and personal issues. For instance, in the Central Provinces, Premier N.B. Khare resigned due to factional disputes within the ministry and legislative party.
- A trend of fake memberships started, and people began competing for jobs and personal benefits. Congress members became increasingly undisciplined everywhere.
- Opportunists and those seeking personal gain began joining Congress, attracted by its position of power. Since Congress was open to all, it was easy for anyone to become a member.
- Some Congress members began favoring caste considerations in their pursuit of power. Gandhi felt that this internal weakening was concerning.
- In his writings, Gandhi criticized the misuse of power and growing corruption within Congress. He even suggested abandoning Congress if corruption continued unchecked.
- Therefore, Gandhi proposed relinquishing positions of power and preparing for another phase of Satyagraha. Jawaharlal Nehru also expressed concerns that Congress ministries were conforming too much to the old system, losing their unique character.
- In summary, the Congress rule period highlighted significant weaknesses like internal divisions, fake memberships, job competitions, lack of discipline, opportunism, caste favoritism, misuse of power, and corruption. Figures like Gandhi and Nehru suggested stepping down from power to address these issues.
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