Before the uprising of 1857, also known as the Indian Rebellion or the First War of Independence, there were several instances of resistance by the people of the Indian subcontinent against British colonial rule. These acts of resistance, though sometimes localized and sporadic, laid the groundwork for the broader movement of dissent that culminated in the events of 1857.
After the British took over parts of northern India following the Battle of Plassey in 1757, there were occasional outbursts of unrest from different groups of Indian people for about a hundred years. One form of this unrest was civil uprisings. Below are descriptions of some important civil uprisings during this time:
Sanyasi Revolt (1763-1800)
During a terrible famine in 1770 and due to the harsh economic policies of the British, a group of sanyasis (Hindu ascetics) in Eastern India decided to fight against British rule. These sanyasis, who were originally peasants or had been kicked off their land, joined forces with small zamindars (landlords), former soldiers, and poor villagers who had lost everything. They attacked British Company factories and treasuries and fought against the Company’s soldiers. It took a long time for the British under Warren Hastings to finally defeat the sanyasis. Both Hindus and Muslims took part in these uprisings, which are sometimes called the Fakir Rebellion. Important leaders included Majnum Shah, Chirag Ali, Musa Shah, Bhawani Pathak, and Debi Chaudhurani. Debi Chaudhurani’s involvement highlights the important role of women in early resistance against the British. The Sanyasi Revolt inspired Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay to write the semi-historical novel “Anandamath.” He also wrote another novel, “Devi Chaudhurani,” recognizing the importance of women in the struggle against a foreign rule that threatened traditional Indian values.
Revolt in Midnapore and Dhalbhum (1766-74)
In 1760, the English took control of Midnapore, where there were about 3,000 zamindars (landlords) and talukdars (estate holders) who had good relationships with their ryots (tenant farmers). However, this peaceful situation changed when the English introduced a new land revenue system in 1772. According to the British governor Vansittart, the zamindars of Midnapore supported the ryots in conflicts with English revenue officials. Eventually, the zamindars from areas like Dhalbhum, Manbhum, Raipur, Panchet, Jhatibuni, Karnagarh, and Bagri, located in the Jungle Mahals of western and north-western Midnapore, lost their landholdings by the 1800s. Important leaders of these uprisings were Damodar Singh and Jagannath Dhal.
Revolt of Moamarias (1769-99)
In 1769, the Moamarias, who were low-caste peasants following the teachings of Aniruddhadeva, rebelled against the authority of the Ahom kings in Assam. Their uprising weakened the Ahom rulers and left the region vulnerable to attacks from outsiders. For example, in 1792, the King of Darrang, supported by his group of burkandazes (former soldiers of Muslim armies and landlords), revolted against the Ahom rule. To suppress these rebellions, the Ahom ruler had to seek help from the British. The Moamarias made Bhatiapar their base, and regions like Rangpur (now in Bangladesh) and Jorhat were heavily affected. Although the Ahom kingdom survived these uprisings, it eventually fell to a Burmese invasion and later came under British control.
Civil Uprisings in Gorakhpur, Basti and Bahraich (1781)
Warren Hastings needed money for wars against the Marathas and Mysore, so he came up with a plan to involve English officers as revenue farmers in Awadh. In 1778, he got Major Alexander Hannay, who knew the area well, to become a revenue farmer. Hannay got control over Gorakhpur and Bahraich and was supposed to collect 22 lakh rupees for a year. This was actually a secret test by the Company to see how much money they could get from the region. However, Hannay’s harsh methods and high demands upset the people who were doing well under the Nawab’s rule. In 1781, the zamindars and farmers rebelled against Hannay’s unfair demands. Within weeks, all of Hannay’s helpers were either killed or surrounded by guerilla fighters from the zamindars. Even though the rebellion was put down, Hannay was fired, and his control over the revenue was taken away forcefully.
Revolt of Raja of Vizianagaram (1794)
In 1758, there was an agreement between the English and Ananda Gajapatiraju, the ruler of Vizianagaram, to work together to remove the French from the Northern Circars area. They succeeded, but the English didn’t keep their promises from the treaty, which was typical of their behavior in India. Anand Raju passed away before he could deal with the English properly. Later, the East India Company asked Vizayaramaraju, the Raja of Vizianagaram, to pay them three lakh rupees as tribute and disband his troops, even though he didn’t owe anything to the Company. This made the raja and his people very angry, so they rebelled against the English. The English captured the raja in 1793 and told him to leave the country with a pension, but he refused. He died in a battle at Padmanabham in 1794, and Vizianagaram came under the rule of the East India Company. Eventually, the Company offered the estate to the raja’s son and reduced the demand for gifts.
Revolt of Dhundia in Bednur (1799-1800)
After the British took over Mysore in 1799, they had to deal with several local leaders. Dhundia Wagh, a Maratha leader who had converted to Islam under Tipu Sultan’s rule and was imprisoned for his actions, was released when Seringapatam fell. Dhundia quickly gathered supporters who were against the British and established his own territory. However, he suffered a defeat by the British in August 1799 and had to seek refuge in the Maratha region. From there, he encouraged disappointed princes to fight against the British and took on a leadership role himself. In September 1800, he was killed in battle against the British forces led by Wellesley. Even though Dhundia didn’t succeed, he became a respected leader among the people.
Resistance of Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (1797; 1800-05)
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja, also known as the Lion of Kerala, was the unofficial leader of Kottayam in the Malabar region. He fought against both Hyder Ali and Tipu Sultan, as well as the British from 1793 to 1805. During the Third Anglo-Mysore War (1790-92), the British extended their control over Kottayam despite an earlier agreement in 1790 that recognized Kottayam’s independence. The English appointed Vira Varma, Pazhassi Raja’s uncle, as the new ruler of Kottayam. However, Vira Varma imposed high taxes on the peasants to meet the revenue targets set by the British, leading to widespread resistance led by Pazhassi Raja in 1793. Pazhassi Raja fought bravely using guerilla tactics, and a peace treaty was signed in 1797. But a dispute over Wayanad in 1800 reignited the conflict, leading to insurgent warfare. Pazhassi Raja assembled a large force of Nairs, supported by Mappilas and Pathans, who were former soldiers of Tipu Sultan. In November 1805, Pazhassi Raja died in a gunfight at Mavila Todu.
Civil Rebellion in Awadh (1799)
Wazir Ali Khan became the fourth Nawab of Awadh with British help in September 1797. However, his relationship with the British soured quickly, and he was replaced by his uncle, Saadat Ali Khan II. Wazir Ali Khan was given a pension in Benares, but in January 1799, he killed a British official, George Frederik Cherry, during a lunch invitation. His guards also killed two other Europeans and attacked the Magistrate of Benares, known as the Massacre of Benares. Wazir Ali Khan gathered an army, but it was defeated by General Erskine. He fled to Butwal and was given refuge by the ruler of Jaipur. Arthur Wellesley asked Jaipur’s ruler to hand over Wazir Ali Khan, who was extradited on the condition that he wouldn’t be executed or put in chains. He surrendered in December 1799 and was imprisoned at Fort William, Calcutta.
Uprisings in Palamau (1800-02)
The situation in Palamau was made difficult by problems with landlords and the feudal system. In 1800, Bhukhan Singh, who was a Chero chief, led a rebellion. Colonel Jones stayed in Palamau and Sarguja for two years to stop the rebellion. Bhukhan Singh passed away in 1802, and after that, the rebellion quieted down.
Diwan Velu Thampi’s Revolt (1808-1809)
The East India Company placed harsh conditions on Travancore after both parties agreed to a subsidiary alliance under Wellesley in 1805. This led to strong resentment in the region because the ruler couldn’t pay the subsidy and fell into debt. The British resident in Travancore interfered in the state’s internal affairs. Because of the Company’s high-handedness, Prime Minister Velu Thampi decided to rebel with the help of Nair troops. Thampi openly called for taking up arms against the British in the Kundara Proclamation, leading to widespread rebellion. A large military operation was needed to restore peace. The Maharaja of Travancore didn’t fully support the rebellion and switched sides to support the Company. Thampi killed himself to avoid capture, and the rebellion eventually died down.
Poligars Revolt (1795-1805)
Between 1795 and 1805, the poligars (local rulers) of South India fiercely resisted British rule. The major centers of these rebellions were Tinneveli, Ramanathapuram, Sivaganga, Sivagiri, Madurai, and North Arcot. The conflict began in 1781 when the Nawab of Arcot gave control of Tinneveli and the Carnatic Provinces to the East India Company, angering the poligars who saw themselves as independent rulers. The first uprising was mainly about taxes, but it grew into a larger political struggle as the English treated the poligars as enemies. Kattabomman Nayakan, the ruler of Panjalankurichi, led the rebellion from 1795 to 1799, defeating the Company forces until he was captured and executed. The rebellion continued with the escape of imprisoned poligars in 1801, leading to further clashes until 1805. In North Arcot, poligars rebelled in 1803-1805 over losing their right to collect fees. The rebellion spread across South India, with rebels calling for independence from British rule.
Parlakimedi Outbreak (1813-34)
In Parlakimedi, located on the western border of Ganjam district (now in Odisha), there was resistance from the zamindars (landlords) and rajas (kings). When the British East India Company took control of Ganjam, Narayan Deo was the raja of Parlakimedi. His resistance led the British to send an army led by Colonel Peach. Peach defeated Narayan Deo in 1768 and made Gajapathi Deo (Narayan’s son) the new zamindar. However, Narayan Deo, along with his son and brothers, rebelled once again. As the resistance continued, the Madras Presidency appointed George Russell as commissioner of the region in 1832. Russell was given full powers to suppress the revolt, and he succeeded in pacifying the region by 1834.
Paika Rebellion (1817)
The Paiks of Odisha were a traditional militia who served as foot soldiers and were given rent-free land for their military and policing duties on a hereditary basis. When the English East India Company conquered Odisha in 1803 and removed the Raja of Khurda from power, it greatly diminished the influence of the Paiks. Additionally, the Company’s harsh land revenue policies angered both zamindars and peasants. The common people were also affected by rising prices due to taxes on salt, the abolition of cowrie currency, and the requirement to pay taxes in silver.
Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar, who was the military chief of the Raja of Khurda’s forces, lost his ancestral estate to the Company in 1814, leaving him in poverty. The rebellion began when a group of Khonds from Gumsur entered Khurda territory in March 1817. With support from Mukunda Deva, the last Raja of Khurda, and other zamindars, Bakshi Jagabandhu Bidyadhar led a diverse army of Paiks, forcing the Company forces to retreat temporarily. This rebellion came to be known as the Paika Bidroh (rebellion). Although some rebels surrendered in November 1818, Jagabandhu avoided capture, sheltered by the Raja of Nayagarh. Despite rewards offered, no one betrayed their leaders. Although Khurda was back under Company control by mid-1817, the Paika rebels continued to fight using guerrilla tactics. The rebellion was brutally suppressed by 1818, with priests at the Puri temple who had sheltered Jagabandhu being caught and hanged. The Paiks suffered greatly. In 1825, Jagabandhu surrendered under negotiated terms, but some sources suggest he was captured and died in captivity in 1829. The Paik Rebellion succeeded in securing significant concessions from the Company, including reductions in assessments and new settlements with fixed tenures.
Ahom Revolt (1828)
After the First Burma War (1824-26), the British had promised to leave Assam. However, they didn’t withdraw as promised. Instead, they tried to take over the Ahom territories. This led to a rebellion in 1828 led by Gomdhar Konwar, an Ahom prince, along with others like Dhanjoy Bongohain and Jairam Khargharia Phukan. They gathered near Jorhat and declared Gomdhar Konwar as the king. Eventually, the Company decided to adopt a peaceful approach and returned Upper Assam to Maharaja Purandar Singh Narendra, restoring part of the kingdom to the Assamese king.
Kolhapur and Savantvadi Revolts
The Gadkaris were a military class who were stationed in Maratha forts. After administrative changes in Kolhapur state after 1844, these garrisons were disbanded, leaving the Gadkaris without jobs. Faced with unemployment, the Gadkaris rebelled and took control of the Samangarh and Bhudargarh forts. Similarly, discontent led to a revolt in Savantvadi areas. The people here had already rebelled against the British in 1830, 1836, and 1838, especially when their ruler was deposed by the British. To control the region, the British introduced several laws.
Wahabi Movement
The Wahabi Movement was started by Syed Ahmed of Rai Bareilly, who was influenced by the teachings of Abdul Wahab of Saudi Arabia and Shah Waliullah of Delhi. Syed Ahmed wanted to return Islam to its pure form as practiced during the time of the Prophet in Arabia, rejecting Western influences.
Syed Ahmed was seen as the leader (Imam) of the movement. They had a countrywide organization with a secret code for their operations, led by spiritual leaders called Khalifas. They established their base in Sithana in the north-western tribal belt. Patna was an important center in India, with missions also in Hyderabad, Madras, Bengal, United Provinces, and Bombay.
The Wahabis declared a jihad against the Sikh kingdom of Punjab after defeating them, and when Punjab became part of the East India Company’s rule in 1849, they turned their focus to attacking the British dominion in India. They spread anti-British sentiments and were involved in several military operations against the British. Despite British efforts to weaken the movement through military actions and court cases, sporadic encounters with authorities continued into the late 19th century.
Kuka Movement
The Kuka Movement began in 1840 by Bhagat Jawahar Mal, also known as Sian Saheb, in western Punjab. Baba Ram Singh became a prominent leader of the movement afterward. Initially focused on religious purification, it later turned into a political campaign after British rule in Punjab. The movement aimed to abolish caste discrimination among Sikhs, discourage meat and alcohol consumption, promote widow remarriage and intermarriage, and empower women. Politically, they sought to remove British rule and restore Sikh governance in Punjab. They promoted wearing hand-woven clothes and boycotting English laws, education, and products, advocating Swadeshi and non-cooperation long before it became part of the Indian national movement. The British tried to suppress the movement between 1863 and 1872, leading to the deportation of Ram Singh to Rangoon in 1872.
Also read about Doctrine of Lapse.