The period before 1857 witnessed several tribal movements across different regions of India, each with its unique socio-political context and objectives. These movements, often rooted in resistance against external encroachments and injustices, played a significant role in shaping the dynamics of pre-colonial Indian society. From the Santhal Rebellion in eastern India to the Bhil uprisings in central India, these tribal movements reflected the aspirations of marginalized communities to assert their autonomy and protect their traditional way of life against colonial intrusion and oppressive local authorities. Understanding the tribal movements before 1857 provides valuable insights into the complexities of indigenous resistance and the diverse socio-cultural landscape of pre-modern India.
Tribal movements before 1857 can be divided into two main categories: mainland tribal revolts and frontier tribal revolts, primarily in the northeastern part of India. Mainland tribal rebellions were triggered by various factors, including issues related to tribal lands and forests. The British land settlements disrupted the traditional joint ownership among tribals, leading to loss of land and influx of outsiders into tribal areas. Restrictions on shifting cultivation in forests worsened their plight. The government’s control over forest areas, driven by the demand for timber, further marginalized tribals. Exploitation by police, traders, and moneylenders exacerbated their suffering. Additionally, intrusion of general laws and interference by Christian missionaries, perceived as representatives of alien rule, fueled resentment among tribals.
In contrast, tribal movements in the northeastern frontier differed in several aspects. Tribes in these areas, with cultural links across borders, were less concerned with nationalist struggles and often sought political autonomy or independence. Unlike mainland tribes, they were generally in control of their land and forests. The British arrived later in these areas, and frontier tribal revolts lasted longer. Additionally, movements against Sanskritisation were prominent among frontier tribes, with efforts to denounce malpractices of neo-Vaishnavite Brahmins. Sanskritisation movements were less prevalent in the northeastern frontier during the colonial period.
Characteristics of Tribal Revolts
The tribal uprisings, despite occurring at different times and places, shared some key characteristics:
- Tribal solidarity was driven by a sense of identity or ethnic ties. While not all outsiders were considered enemies, violence was often directed at moneylenders and traders, perceived as agents of the colonial government.
- Resentment stemmed from the imposition of laws by the foreign government, which threatened the traditional socioeconomic structure of the tribes.
- Many uprisings were led by charismatic leaders who promised to alleviate the suffering caused by outsiders and encouraged their people to revolt.
- However, the tribal uprisings faced significant challenges due to their outdated weaponry, contrasting with the modern arms and tactics used by their opponents.
Pahariyas’ Rebellion
The British expansion into their territory prompted an uprising by the martial Pahariyas of the Raj Mahal Hills in 1778. In response, the British had to establish peace by designating their territory as a damni-kol area.
Chuar Uprising
Due to famine, increased land revenue demands, and economic hardships, the Chuar aboriginal tribes in the Jungle Mahal of Midnapore and Bankura districts in Bengal rebelled. These tribes were mainly farmers and hunters. The uprising occurred from 1766 to 1772 and resurfaced between 1795 and 1816.
The Chuars, particularly prominent in Manbhum and Barabhum, held their lands under a feudal tenure but were flexible, switching between farming and hunting as directed by their jungle chiefs or landlords. In 1768, Jagannath Singh, the zamindar of Ghatsila, led a rebellion with thousands of Chuars, forcing the Company government to yield. In 1771, Chuar leaders like Shyam Ganjan of Dhadka and Subla Singh of Kaliapal rebelled but were suppressed. The most significant uprising was led by Durjan Singh in 1798, after he was dispossessed of his estate due to Bengal Regulations. His followers, 1,500 Chuars, violently protested against the auction of the Raipur estate but were brutally suppressed by the British. Other Chuar leaders included Madhab Singh, brother of the raja of Barabhum, Raja Mohan Singh, zamindar of Juriah, and Lachman Singh of Dulma. Some historians refer to this as the Revolt of the Jungle Mahal instead of using the term ‘Chuar’, which is considered derogatory by some.
Kol Mutiny (1831)
The Kols, along with other tribes, lived in Chhotanagpur, which included areas like Ranchi, Singhbhum, Hazaribagh, Palamau, and parts of Manbhum. Trouble started in 1831 when large portions of land owned by Kol leaders were transferred to outsiders like Hindu, Sikh, and Muslim farmers and moneylenders. These outsiders were oppressive and imposed heavy taxes. Additionally, British judicial and revenue policies negatively impacted the traditional social structure of the Kols. In response, the Kols, led by Buddho Bhagat, rebelled in 1831 and killed or burned about a thousand outsiders. It took extensive military operations to restore order.
Ho and Munda Uprisings (1820-1837)
The Raja of Parahat rallied the Ho tribals to revolt against the occupation of Singhbhum (now in Jharkhand). The revolt lasted until 1827 when the Ho tribals were compelled to surrender. However, in 1831, they rebelled again, this time joined by the Mundas of Chotanagpur. They were protesting against the newly introduced farming revenue policy and the influx of Bengalis into their region. Although the rebellion was suppressed in 1832, the Ho activities continued until 1837. The Mundas, too, were not silent for long. In 1899-1900, the Mundas in the region south of Ranchi revolted under Birsa Munda. This uprising, known as Ulgulan, was one of the most significant tribal uprisings between 1860 and 1920. Starting as a religious movement, it evolved into a political force fighting against feudalism, zamindari tenures, and exploitation by moneylenders and forest contractors. The Mundas claimed Chhotanagpur as their own in 1879, leading to the deployment of British armed forces. Birsa was eventually captured and imprisoned.
The Santhal Rebellion (1855-56)
The Santhal rebellion arose due to continued mistreatment of the Santhals, who were farmers, by the zamindars. These farmers had relocated to settle in the plains of the Rajmahal hills (Bihar). The zamindars, backed by moneylenders and the police, oppressed the peasants with heavy taxes and took away their lands. This led the Santhals to revolt, which eventually turned into a movement against the British rule. Led by two brothers, Sidhu and Kanhu, the Santhals declared independence for the area between Bhagalpur and Rajmahal, aiming to end Company rule. However, the rebellion was put down by 1856.
Khond Uprisings (1837-1856)
From 1837 to 1856, the Khonds living in the hilly regions spanning from Odisha to the Srikakulam and Visakhapatnam districts of Andhra Pradesh rebelled against the rule of the East India Company. The rebellion was led by Chakra Bisoi, a young raja, and they were supported by other tribes like the Ghumsar, Kalahandi, and others. They protested against the banning of human sacrifice, imposition of new taxes, and the intrusion of zamindars into their lands. When Chakra Bisoi disappeared, the uprising came to an end. Later, in 1914, there was another Khond rebellion in the Orissa region, driven by the hope of ending foreign rule and establishing their own autonomous government.
Bhil Revolts
The Bhils, residing in the Western Ghats and controlling the mountain passes, rebelled against the rule of the East India Company from 1817 to 1819. They faced famine, economic difficulties, and poor governance. The British tried to suppress the rebellion using force and by making peace offerings. However, the Bhils rebelled again in 1825, 1831, and 1846. Later, a reformer named Govind Guru helped the Bhils in south Rajasthan (Banswara and Sunth states) to organize themselves to fight for a Bhil Raj by 1913.
Koli Risings
The Kolis, who lived near the Bhils, rebelled against the rule of the East India Company in 1829, 1839, and again from 1844 to 1848. They were unhappy with the Company’s rule because it resulted in widespread unemployment for them and the destruction of their forts.
Khasi Uprising
The East India Company aimed to construct a road connecting the Brahmaputra Valley with Sylhet after taking control of the hilly region between Garo and Jaintia Hills. They brought in many outsiders, including Englishmen, Bengalis, and plains laborers, for this project. The local tribes like the Khasis, Garos, Khamptis, and Singphos, led by Tirath Singh, organized themselves to push out these outsiders from the plains. This resistance eventually turned into a widespread revolt against British rule in the area. However, by 1833, the superior military strength of the British had successfully quelled the uprising.
Weakness of Revolt
- These uprisings involved many people but were limited to specific areas and happened at different times.
- They mostly started because of local problems and grievances.
- The leaders of these movements were often traditional and looked to the past, and their resistance didn’t offer new solutions for society.
- Although many revolts aimed to remove foreign rule, it wasn’t because of a unified national movement but because they were all facing similar problems.
- These rebellions had been happening for centuries and were deeply rooted in cultural and ideological beliefs.
- Some rebels were calmed down by the authorities with concessions.
- The rebels used outdated methods and weapons compared to the modern tactics and weapons used by their opponents.
Also read about Civil Uprising Against British Before 1857.